The Ruler of Andalusia (Spain)
According to historians, al-Ghafiqi resembled Musa ibn Nusayr and Tariq ibn Ziyad in his noble fervour and lofty aspirations.
The Commander of the Faithful, the fifth Rightly Guided Caliph, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, barely had time to shake the dirt from his hands after the funeral of his predecessor, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, when he began to appoint governors, dismissing some and appointing new ones.
Among those appointed was a man named as-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani. Umar entrusted him with the governance of Andalusia and the areas open to Islam which were located in the territory of modern-day France.
The new ruler arrived in Andalusia and began searching for kind and sincere assistants. He asked those around him, “Are there any followers of the Companions left in these regions?”
They answered, “Yes, governor. We have a noble follower of the Companions, Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abdallah al-Ghafiqi, living here.”
They then told the governor that this follower of the Companions was well versed in the Book of Allah (the Koran), had a profound understanding of the hadiths of the Messenger of God ﷺ, and had extensive experience participating in military campaigns to spread the religion of the Most High. Moreover, he was indifferent to worldly goods.
Then they told him, “He met with the noble Companion Abdullah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab and learned from him as much knowledge as Allah desired and he still follows in his footsteps.”
As-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani invited Abd ar-Rahman al-Ghafiqi to his home. When he arrived, the governor honoured him, welcoming him warmly and seating him next to him. He sat with al-Ghafiqi for some time, asking him various questions and consulting on topics that were not entirely clear to him. He wanted to assess his guest’s knowledge and understand the man before him.
Al-Ghafiqi proved to be even more worthy and knowledgeable than he had been reputed to be. Finally, the governor offered al-Ghafiqi the governance of one of the major regions of Andalusia.
Al-Ghafiqi said, “O ruler, truly I am only a man, a simple Muslim. I came to this land to reside on one of the Muslim borders and I vowed to dedicate myself to what pleases Allah. And I drew my sword for the sake of elevating the word of Allah on earth. And you will find, if it be the will of the Almighty, that I will follow you like a shadow, as long as you adhere to the truth. And I will obey you better than your own fingers, as long as you yourself are submissive to Allah and His Messenger ﷺ, and I will do all this without appointing me to the position of governor or commander...
A short time later, as-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani decided to equip troops to bring Islam to all the Frankish lands. After these territories came under the protection of the Muslim ruler, he hoped to reach the Balkans and from there advance to Constantinople to fulfill the conquest of that city predicted by the Messenger of God ﷺ.
The first step toward achieving this important goal was to be the conquest of Narbonne. It was the largest city in the French lands bordering Andalusia. Every time the Muslims descended from the Pyrenees, they found this city standing in their way like an impenetrable wall. The city was the key to the rest of France.
As-Samh ibn Malik approached Narbonne and offered the inhabitants a choice: either convert to Islam or pay the jizya (a tax levied on non-Muslims for patronage, for sparing their lives and continued protection from internal and external enemies, for exemption from military service, for permission to practice a non-Muslim religion, etc.). The city’s inhabitants found both options oppressive and refused both offers.
After this, the Muslims began storming the city and bombarding it with missiles. After four weeks of heroic attacks and military exploits, the likes of which Europe had never seen, the ancient and well-fortified city fell into Muslim hands.
The triumphant commander immediately led his troops to the city of Toulouse, the capital of the province of Aquitaine. At his command, the Muslims set up missiles around the city and began bombarding it. Europe had never seen such weapons before. The city, well-fortified and seemingly impregnable, was ready to surrender.
But then something happened that no one expected. Let us give the floor to the French orientalist Renaud.
“When the Muslims were half a step away from victory, the Duke of Aquitaine began to rouse the inhabitants of neighboring lands to war against the Muslims. He sent his messengers, who traveled throughout Europe, warning rulers and commanders that the Muslims could seize their lands and carry off their women and children. And there was not a nation in Europe that did not throw its best warriors against the Muslims. As a result, a very large army was assembled. It was an immense army that rushed to meet the Muslims, shaking the earth. The world had never seen anything like it. It is said that dust raised by their feet and hooves blanketed the lands surrounding the Rhone so completely that the sun was obscured...
As the two armies approached, it seemed as if two enormous mountains were advancing on each other. Then they clashed in a fierce battle. History had never seen such a conflict.
As-Samh kept appearing before our troops, appearing here and there in front of his camp. But finally, an arrow struck him and he fell from his horse.
The Muslims, seeing him dead on the ground, lost heart. Their ranks broke. However, by the grace of God, a talented commander, whom Europe would later come to know well, assumed command. This was Abd ar-Rahman al-Ghafiqi. He managed to lead his troops away from the battlefield with minimal losses. The Muslims returned to Spain. But the commander was determined to return again.
And then...
Have you ever seen how on a dark night the clouds suddenly part and a full moon appears and the lost rush to take advantage of its light and the lost find their way by its radiance?
That is how the Battle of Toulouse revealed to the world the outstanding hero of Islam, Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abdallah al-Ghafiqi.
And have you ever imagined those dying of thirst in the desert suddenly noticing the glimmer of water and stretch out their hands to scoop up the life-giving fluid? That is how the Muslims stretched out their hands to their great commander, seeking his salvation. They swore to him that they would listen to him and obey him. And this is not surprising. After all, the Battle of Toulouse was the first deep wound inflicted on the Muslims since they set foot on European soil. And Abd ar-Rahman al-Ghafiqi became a healing balm for this wound, a caring hand that covered it and a generous heart that poured compassion and care upon it.
The sad news of the disaster that befell the Muslims in the Frankish lands pained the Caliph in Damascus and the death of the brave and fearless warrior as-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani sparked a desire to avenge him. The Muslim ruler approved the oath the soldiers swore to their commander, Abd ar-Rahman al-Ghafiqi, and entrusted him with command of all troops and control over all of Andalusia from one end to the other, as well as the areas of the Frankish realm already open to Islam, while granting him freedom of action.
And this is not surprising, since Abd ar-Rahman al-Ghafiqi was an extremely steadfast and decisive man, and also God-fearing, pure, wise, and fearless.
To be continued…
Adil Ibragimov
Theologian
Is entering under the tutelage of a sheikh a prerequisite for spiritual purification?
Below, we will cite books that assert that a person is capable of achieving purification of the heart and sincerity in worship independently, without the help of a sheikh-mentor.
The book Rashahat ʻayn al-hayat contains the following story. Ya’qub al-Charkhi said, “I saw a sheikh in Termez who was radical and went to extremes, insisting that having a sheikh was essential for the spiritual path. He claimed that a murid could not attain maqam (spiritual status) without the help of a sheikh. I then said to him: “The meaning of the verse “This day I have perfected your religion for you and completed My favour upon you...” (Sura Al-Ma’idah, ayah 3) is that for spiritual growth and perfection, a believer only needs to be guided by the Koran and the Sunna. Therefore, following a sheikh is not obligatory.
I then explained my position to Bahauddin al-Naqshbandi (may his soul be sanctified) and he approved of it and accepted it with full consent.” (Rashahat ʻayn al-Hayat, p. 691)
First, Islamic law has a fundamental rule: “The general meaning of a text remains valid until evidence is presented that limits its application.” This means that if a religious text has a broad, all-encompassing meaning, it is to be understood in this general sense until evidence is found that narrows its scope of application – by referring to a specific cause, condition or category of people. Until such limiting evidence is found, the norm applies in its original, general meaning.
Second, the assertion based on the quotation from the book Rashahat ʻayn al-Hayat – that the Koran and Sunna are sufficient for spiritual growth,and therefore a sheikh-mentor is not necessary – is general in nature. It does not distinguish between those who possess special spiritual gifts and are capable of cleansing themselves of spiritual vices on their own and the majority of believers who require the guidance of a sheikh-mentor (murshid).
To properly understand this statement, it is necessary to consider its context. It was addressed to a sheikh from Termez, who went to the extreme, claiming that achieving spiritual purification was fundamentally impossible without the help of a sheikh-mentor (that is, everyone without exception is obliged to have a sheikh-mentor).
Therefore, it is natural to turn to authoritative sources to determine whether there are statements in the works of recognized scholars that specify or narrow the general meaning of this text. Specifically, is it stated anywhere that having a sheikh-mentor is a prerequisite for every person striving for spiritual perfection (ihsan) and the eradication of vices of the soul?
Hasan Afandi writes the following about this: “A murid needs a murshid (mentor), unless he is exempted from this need by the grace of Allah and jazbat (a special state in which the Almighty Himself brings a slave closer to Him), through which one can attain closeness to Allah without any difficulties.”
According to Hasan Afandi’s classification, people on the path to knowing God and spiritual purification are divided into three categories:
- Those who require a real, living mentor (murshid hisiy);
- Those for whom a “meaningful” mentor (murshid ma’nawiy) in the form of divine inspiration (ilham) is sufficient; and
- Those who, by the grace of Allah, are freed from the use of any spiritual practices and attain Him through direct attraction (jazbat), bypassing all conventions and difficulties.
Thus, it becomes clear that the general meaning of the assertions about the sufficiency of the Koran and Sunna for spiritual growth applies to the second category of people mentioned by Hasan Afandi. This group does not include representatives of the first category, who are precisely those who need a living mentor.
Accordingly, by calling for the obligatory presence of a sheikh-mentor, Hasan Afandi and other scholars are referring specifically to the first category, which is clearly confirmed by his further words: “Whoever thinks that he has purified his worship of Allah from blameworthy qualities without having embarked on the path of sincerity (tariqa) is mistaken, unless he is surrounded by all-encompassing divine care and the Almighty has granted him closeness to Himself, which is a rare exception. As I said earlier, the decision is made by the majority.”
Hasan Afandi draws a clear distinction between those who are obligated to enter under the tutelage of a sheikh-mentor and those who are not. However, since the overwhelming majority of people do not possess a heart pure of spiritual vices, the general decision is made in accordance with the majority.
Hasan Afandi also writes: “The scholars unanimously decided that anyone who does not have a pure heart is obligated to enter under the tutelage of a [spiritual] mentor (sheikh), as explained in other books. But they did not establish this as obligatory for a person who sincerely and steadfastly follows his religion, without straying from the path. Consider this.”
Hasan Afandi makes it clear that someone who is able to independently perform religious precepts in accordance with the Koran and Sunna possesses sincerity (ikhlas), and is free of spiritual vices that render their actions futile, does not need a sheikh-mentor.
Thus, Hasan Afandi demonstrates that his position, as well as that of al-Sharani, Imam al-Ghazali, and other scholars who insist on the obligatory presence of a sheikh-mentor, does not contradict the text of the book Rashahat ‘ayn al-hayat, which asserts that for spiritual growth, a believer only needs to be guided by the Koran and Sunna and that the involvement of a sheikh is not obligatory.
This apparent contradiction is resolved by the fact that the instruction in the work Rashahat is general in nature. Hasan Afandi, in turn, narrows its scope of application, limiting it to that category of people who are capable of sincerely and strictly observing all religious precepts without a mentor. Since such people are rare, the general rule is formulated in accordance with the position of the majority, which corresponds to a generally recognized principle of Islamic jurisprudence.
Another question that may arise is: was Hasan Afandi aware of this quotation from the book Rashahat? The answer is: not only did he know this statement, but he also cited it in his work Al-Multaqat al-Kahiya min Rashahat ‘Ayn al-Hayat, in which he included seventy-nine fragments from the original source. The very fact that Hasan Afandi cited this statement serves as further evidence of the absence of any contradictions in this matter. Thus, the explanations of Hasan Afandi and other scholars help us correctly understand and interpret such statements.
In conclusion, I want to emphasise: when we encounter statements that at first glance seem contradictory, it is crucial to consult the works of competent scholars for their correct understanding - our religion calls us to do so.
May Almighty Allah help us cleanse ourselves of spiritual vices, become His sincere servants, and see truth as truth and follow it and falsehood as falsehood and distance ourselves from it. Amin.
